WEEKLY READING
RESPONSE ASSESSMENT
WORD COUNT = XXX of a 400 minimum required
Availability for Response #1/5 DUE = 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 points
5 = A A- Exceeds objectives and expectations at a superior level
4 = B+ B B- Meets objectives and expectations adequately
3 = C+ C C- Meets some objectives and expectations
2 = D+ D Meets fewer expectations appropriately
1 = D - Does not meet expectations, far below
0 = Unable to score
YOUR SCORE: XXXX
Comments embedded into student essays with grade
REVIEW RESPONSE #3/5:
Question #3/5:
> From Chapter 6
During the 7th c. BCE, the Villanovans occupied northern and western regions of Italy. The central region was home to the people who spoke what is closest to Latin today, and who, the chapter refers to as the Romans, as they settled around the city of Rome.Using four examples from architecture, city planning and painting, only, explain why this period (7th c. BCE through 350 CE) grew to be so strong in culture, politics, art forms, and so much more!
Your Response Requirements need to include these:
- Please read the published short essays written by your colleagues from Response #1/5 and #2/5 before you begin to write your response. Why? They are excellent examples of organization, information, and reflection of the question.
- Bring in 4 examples from our text and outside research you have uncovered from architecture, city planning, and painting ONLY that describes why the Roman Empire became so strong, using the examples as your illustrations of this cultural development and stronghold.
- Note the complete details of the objects you are speaking of including: title, date, location if appropriate, page number of where it can be found or source url.
- Explain why you are using these objects to support your response; i.e. explain why this period (7th c. BCE through 350 CE) grew to be so strong in culture, politics, art forms, and so much more!
- PLEASE NOTE THE DATES I AM GIVING -> these dates only, not before, nor after....
- Embed illustrations of your examples (all of them) into the end of your paper
- Include a Word Count at the bottom
- Include a bibliography
- Name your WORD.doc file Your name.Response 3/5.doc
- Send it to me at jpepper@cazenovia.edu
- 400 words minimum not 300!
- Be as thorough as possible.
- Respond in narrative form.
- Chapter Review Response sent by email and posted to blog on FRIDAY, APR 10th at 11:30 am.
Chapter Response #3/5 DUE TUE APR 14 @ 6 PM send to jpepper@cazenovia.edu
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Art History
Professor Pepper
April 10, 2020
Weekly response #3
The Villanovans took over western and northern regions of Italy towards the end of the Bronze Age. In the 7th century, Etruscans who were related to the Villanovans began to control most of central and northern Italy. Between the period of 7th c. BCE through 350 CE, a huge growth in culture, specifically art, occurred. Studies of Roman Empire display this through their architecture, paintings and city planning.
City planning strengthened Rome because having everyone together allowed easy access to temples and other necessary places. In addition, the Romans developed sewer systems and public bathrooms. The city was also designed in a grid-like pattern, similar to the layout of Ancient Egypt and Greece. To add, in the middle of the city was the Pantheon, which served to be a great place for Romans to gather and worship their gods. It brought unity to their culture, making them stronger as a whole. Without connecting with the people within your culture and environment, you aren’t able to blossom and learn from one another. The Romans were able to do this by creating a centralized place for their people to worship the gods they believed in with everyone else, which strengthened the community aspect of their empire.
The Etruscan temples were built to bury and honor the dead. One of the most known temples in this culture would be the Temple of Minerva; a temple dedicated to the goddess named Minerva. It was located in the city of Veii and had a unique organization to it. It was composed into two parts, the first being a front porch with wide spaced Tuscan. The second part was a three-room space. It reflects a triad that is associated with the temple (Pepper). These temples varied from the Greek temples, because the Roman temples had their low-rising stepped entrances and forest columns (Pepper). These temples were a major factor that made the Roman empire to be much stronger. Throughout their architecture, growth within their culture is displayed, and the temples strengthened and solidified their culture by being something that they were well known for.
Intricate paintings were also a way that the Romans strengthened their empire. The Etruscans created magnificent tombs for the deceased, and there were sometimes sculptures of the couple who passed on a couch to show the love that they loved each other. Some of the tombs resembled rooms in houses, while others were plastered and painted. While creating these tombs, they created a new medium that they called stucco; a slow drying form of plaster that can be shaped and carved (Pepper). Stucco is still widely used today. These tombs helped the Roman empire grow stronger and advance their culture, paintings, and sculptures. For example, it helped them develop a new medium for artwork, and their tombs displayed their painting abilities and carving skills. To add, the of the article “Etruscan Tomb Paintings” wrote, “The Etruscan tomb paintings show that these people believed in an afterlife and that such decoration, along with the provision of grave goods from gold jewelry to dinner sets, somehow comforted and helped the deceased on their journey into that new and unknown world.” (Cartwright). In short, paintings in the tombs helped strengthen the Roman empire by providing them with beliefs that the afterlife existed, helping them honor the dead through these paintings and solidifying their beliefs.
The Romans have had many amazing architectures, but the one that stands out to me the most would be the Colosseum, which opened in 80 CE. It is a large cylinder shaped “sports arena” where the Romans would gather and watch events that they considered sports at the time, such as gladiator battles. In the textbook, the author states, “The Flavians erected the arena to bolster their popularity in Rome, and in this enormous entertainment center, audiences watched blood sports and spectacles including animal hunts, fights to the death between gladiators or between gladiators and wild animals, and performances by trained animals and acrobats.” (Stokstad, Marilyn p. 144). To clarify, in these battles most of them were fought between man and animal and sometimes man vs. man. The only way one would win is if the other died, so they fought to the death. A great deal of strength is displayed through this architecture, because it shows them training to become tough. In order to be a gladiator, you would have to train and become strong, so they needed to have a great deal of discipline as well as self-motivation. These gladiators would have to train themselves to win against a wild animal, so these battles were definitely a sign of strength through the Roman Empire.
Overall, the Roman Empire was very strong in many aspects, including their city planning, architecture and paintings. These examples showed that they were strong in a physical, emotional and mental sense of the term. They were able to hold their own in a fight, come together as a whole, and use art to remember and honor the deceased.
Reclining Couple on a sarcophagus from Cerveteri,
c. 520 BCE Terracotta p. 133 (Pepper)
|
Dancers and Diners
Tomb of the Triclinium, c. 480 - 470 BCE (Pepper)
Temple of Minerva p. 131 (Pepper) The Colosseum (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica)
The Pantheon (Lampkin)
Work cited:
Cartwright, Mark. “Etruscan Tomb Paintings.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, 8 Apr. 2020, www.ancient.eu/article/1013/etruscan-tomb-paintings/.
The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Colosseum.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 25 Apr. 2018, www.britannica.com/topic/Colosseum.
Lampkin, Benjamin. “11 Monumental Facts About the Pantheon.” Mental Floss, 27 Apr. 2016, www.mentalfloss.com/article/71948/11-monumental-facts-about-pantheon.
Pepper, Jen. “NOTES: Chapter 6 > The Ancient Roman World.” NOTES: Chapter 6 > The Ancient Roman World, 2020, sp2020cazfa111.blogspot.com/2020/04/notes-chapter-6-ancient-roman-world.html.
Stokstad, Marilyn and Cothren Michael. Art a Brief History. Pearson, 2016.
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Review Response Question 3/5
During the seventh century BCE of Italy the people known as the Villanovans made their home in the Northern and Western regions of Italy. They were also known for speaking Latin and becoming the Romans we speak of today in our culture. As an important pillar in our history they created many forms of art, city planning, and architecture that America and many other countries have borrowed in creation of cities and art forms.
One of the forms of city planning they used was, unlike the Greeks, to have their church in the center of the city or on corners of streets, so that all people were equally close to their gods and that no person was left out (Pepper 2). This planning was carried over into American and European cultures, not in exactly the same way but in a manner that churches were made easily accessible to all people and located in both heavily populated areas and rural towns. For the Villanovans/Romans having their church in the center made them stronger as a culture because they were able to meet in a centralized area, communicate with each other, as well as share ideas of religion, and other common ideas, as shown by Figure 2.
As shown by figure 1, in addition to city planning homes and buildings were planned out in a grid form as to utilize as much space as possible as well as make it easier to expand their cities later on without and issues. This grid format could also help with planning out business districts or home districts keeping the two separate or, for other districts, keep them closer to certain areas. This is also quite similar to city planning today as areas with homes are kept away from big work areas, while shopping districts are kept close as to entice shoppers to them. This would increase the amount of money following through Rome and boost production rates and trades with other civilizations bringing peace and prosperity to Rome.
Along with city planning came administration buildings, theatres, temples, baths, roads, bridges and much more. Since the land of Rome was not flat they had to overcome every obstacle to create a unified city that was easily traversable and make accessibility to important buildings like temples to all. By creating roads and bridges they allowed people to cross rivers, walk to buildings without mud or grass getting on them, and allowing for carts full of goods or people to travel the city easily. This would help increase their trade and spending among citizens by amazing amounts. Stalls of goods and shops in buildings would have been developed not only necessities, but for luxury items as well. These roads would have also made travel to other cities easy as well, shown by figure 4. Not only would this have encouraged travel amongst citizens but make travel for military purposes easy. This would have helped Rome defend their country and ward off any attacks through quick defense and offense.
In temples and memorials for people who once lived we see paintings of those who have passed from Roman culture and how people saw them. These tombs were to look natural and as if it were a place a living person could stay in and live, as shown by figure 3. By making these tombs a home like area with frescos the Romans developed stucco a slow drying plaster (Pepper 37-38). The creation of this plaster from art would help create stronger buildings as well as introduce a new form of art to the public. The art on the walls, however, would also strengthen the bond between people and their ancestors and the need to protect these tombs.
Word Count: 618
Turin Grid
Roman Temple
Figure 2
Figure 3
Dancers and Diners
Figure 4
Ancient Roman Roads
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Professor Pepper
Chapter Response #3/5
At the end of the Bronze Age (1000 BCE) a group of people who spoke a language closest to Latin, known as Etruscans or Villanovans, occupied the north and western regions of Italy. Soon a group of new people came in known as the Romans who overthrew the Etruscans. They absorbed them and claimed their land as their own, calling it The Republic of Rome. They expanded their land throughout the 7th century (700-600 BCE) until 350 CE. They did this by becoming strong in their culture, politics, art forms, architecture, and so on. The Romans were a good example of strength and showed insight on how a civilization should be created and run.
The biggest thing the Romans did to become a strong empire was creating a good political system. They created a political system that was meant to represent the people of Rome. According to National Geographic, “At the head of the republic were two consuls. These consuls were usually military generals who were in charge of Rome’s army. The Senate was composed of Roman citizens who were responsible for advising both judges and the Roman people.” Of course, to properly ensure that the common people were protected a Roman law code was created which was inscribed on 12 bronze tablets, known as the Twelve Tables in 450 BCE (Figure 1). These laws talked about legal procedures, civil rights, and property rights. These tables outlined rights and privileges that each person had. They became the stepping-stone for all future Roman civil laws, the Bill of Rights is quite similar. The protection of the common people laid out a strong foundation for Rome to become the most powerful empire.
The Romans developed much more than a strong political system, their architecture is even stronger. The Romans really thought outside the box with what materials they built their buildings with. The Romans mainly used a volcanic stone that was native to Italy, called tufa, to construct their buildings. In the late 2nd century BCE they started to add in another material, travertine, because it was more durable and had a similar color to marble. Marble wasn’t used too much in the start of Rome because it was seen as too extravagant. The Romans also made the construction of buildings easier. In the early 2nd century BCE they created a Roman concrete (opus caementicium) that was much stronger and durable than mortar. Mortar has been used as a bonding agent all around the ancient world, it is a combination of sand, lime and water. The Romans introduced a volcanic Italian sand, pozzolana, that really made the mortar more powerful. According to Khan Academy, “The invention of opus caementicium initiated the Roman architectural revolution, allowing for builders to be much more creative with their designs. Since concrete takes the shape of the mold or frame it is poured into, buildings began to take on ever more fluid and creative shapes.” The Romans really shaped how strong buildings could actually be and provided a foundation of protection for their people. A lot of their architecture still stands today, as seen by “Temple of Portunus” (Figure 2). This temple is thought to have been created between 120-80 BCE and over than a few chips it still is standing tall.
The Romans showed their power in a number of ways and that also includes artistically. Romans adopted the Hellenistic style of the Greeks while adding on an even more surreal twist. Sculptures of the time created life like images based on observation, they had an individualization of the human body and the many forms it can have. Their paintings were very influential and interesting. They were apart of architecture and buildings which was much different from just a painting in a frame. Romans essentially broke the forth wall in painting. According to Ancient History, “The interiors of Roman buildings of all description were very frequently sumptuously decorated using bold colours and designs. Wall paintings, fresco, and the use of stucco to create relief effects were all commonly used by the 1st century BCE in public buildings, private homes, temples, tombs, and even military structures across the Roman world. Designs could range from intricate realistic detail to highly impressionistic renderings which frequently covered all of the available wall space including the ceiling.” These paintings really show and spread the love of the Roman empire. A good example of this is Figure 3, it is a painting in a building that is still standing today. Paintings similar to this really show how advanced the Romans were in creating art as well as creating a different culture. Their strength really showed in their architecture and art which is still revolutionary today.
Romans were able to spread their influence further that art. They even started creating their own currency out of metals. The denarius was a silver coin that was mainly used for ceremonial purposes but held a small monetary value. When Rome was ruled by Julius Caesar (b. 100 BCE d. 44BCE) he decided to do something interesting (Figure 4). According to Marilyn and Cothren, “Julius Caesar used and a widely circulated coin bearing his profile facing right and looking ahead while looking back. There was an inscription on the coin that read ‘Caesar, dictator forever.’ The addition of text conceptually galvanized the propaganda values of the ruler. Roman rulers adopted this practice and coins continued to be minted in this way” (134). The use of this queen strengthened the pride people had for their empire as well as their ruler at the time. The innovations of the Romans really paved the way for the future artistically and traditionally. Around the world countries have followed what the Romans did with their coins, having their rulers or people of great importance on them.
Overall the Romans created a strong empire using many things including their culture, politics, art forms, and architecture. They paved the way for many new inventions and ideas that countries around the world still used today. They provided a steppingstone for how a civilization should run. The Romans may have been the greatest ancient civilization in history because of all their unique ideas that led them to be a strong force to reckon with. The world can still learn a lot from the Romans centuries after they fell.
Images
Figure 1. Unknown, “Twelve Tables” Bronze. Rome, Italy Roman Forum https://www.sutori.com/item/the-twelve-tables-is-the-base-of-all-roman-law-they-adapted-old-traditions-into
Figure 2. Unknown, “Temple of Portunus” Travertine and tufa. Rome, Italy
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/beginners-guide-rome/a/roman-architecture
Figure 3. Unknown, “Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale” Fresco, 50–40 BCE https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/wall-painting/a/roman-wall-painting-styles
Figure 4. Unknown,“Denarius with Portrait of Julius Caesar” Silver, 3/4” in diameter. 44BCE https://sp2020cazfa111.blogspot.com/2020/04/notes-chapter-6-ancient-roman-world.html
Works Cited
Cartwright, Mark. “Roman Art.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, 12 Apr. 2020, www.ancient.eu/Roman_Art/.
National Geographic Society. “Republic to Empire: Government in Ancient Rome.” National Geographic Society, 7 Aug. 2015, www.nationalgeographic.org/activity/republic-empire-government-ancient-rome/.
“Roman Architecture (Article) | Ancient Rome.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/beginners-guide-rome/a/roman-architecture.
Stokstad, Marilyn and Cothren, Michael W. “Art: A Brief History.” 6thedition, Pearson,2016.
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FA111 Art History
Weekly Response 3/5
The Roman Empire became strong from the foundations built by other civilizations. From the Greeks, to the Etruscans, and the Villanovans, along with bits and pieces taken from other conquered lands, Rome grew both in power and in culture until they became the massive empire they are so famous for.
Roman art expanded as they conquered and traded with civilizations. Most notable are the effects the Etruscans and Greeks had, but other practices were also subsumed. The Fayum mummy portrait is one such practice. After conquering Egypt much of the ways the Egyptians used to do things were changed to fit Roman sensibilities, however this went both ways. Mummification was adopted by the Romans in Egypt, taking on an aspect of their art in the form of portraits painted on wooden boards (Collins). Adopting certain parts of conquered cultures allowed a diffusion of ideas that greatly benefitted the Roman Empire in both short and long term.
Romans also had strong architectural planning. The city of Timgad is an excellent example of this, as the entire city is made with even grids and streets oriented to the north and south, or cardo, and east and west, decumanus maximus (Patowary). This allowed the city to expand easily while still maintaining good infrastructure, which it did for about 300 years. In doing so, it grew to control access to and from the Sahara. These same principles of good planning made their way into the buildings themselves as well. For instance, roofs were not allowed to be taller than 17 meters to prevent collapse, and to prevent fires in Roman apartments food had to be cooked outside or purchased from vendors (Hays). Beyond safety measures, most houses followed certain conventions like being built around an atrium or having a dog chained up in the entrance of the house, called the ostium. In lieu of a real dog, a painting of one would sometimes be put on the wall or floor. All of it was done to optimize the space, comfort, and safety of one’s home.
As mentioned before, the Romans conquered the Etruscans, which contributed greatly to the start of their empire. Etruscans already had undergone a change of their own during the Orientalizing period where they adopted some of the artistic practices of Greece, so they came around at a time when mixing cultures was more common place. Had it not been, perhaps the Romans wouldn’t have been as wildly successful as they were due to clashing ideals.
Word count: 415
Collins, Neil. “Fayum Mummy Portraits (C.50 BCE - 250 CE).” Fayum Mummy Portraits, www.visual-arts-cork.com/antiquity/fayum-mummy-portraits.htm.
Hays, Jeffrey. “ANCIENT ROMAN HOUSES.” Facts and Details, factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub369/item2072.html.
Hitchcock, Jocelyn. “Mummy Mia: the Fayum Mummy Portraits.” Classical Wisdom Weekly, 25 July 2019, classicalwisdom.com/culture/painting/mummy-mia-the-fayum-mummy-portraits/.
Patowary, Kaushik. “Timgad: An Ancient Roman City With a Very Modern Grid Design.” Amusing Planet, Home, 1 Dec. 2019, www.amusingplanet.com/2015/10/timgad-ancient-roman-city-with-very.html.
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Professor Pepper
Art Histroy 1
April 14, 2020
During the seventh century BCE as the Villanovans were settling in the north and western regions of what is currently Italy, the central region was settled by a group of people that spoke proto-Latin known as the Romans. Through their adoption of Greek architecture, city planning and painting, as well as further expansion upon these disciplines in their own way, the Roman people built a long-standing empire.
The way in which the Romans adopted the Greek technique of city planning from the Etruscans was crucial to their rapid expansion. The Greek city planning style was to plan out cities in a grid pattern. This aided the Romans in their conquest of neighboring lands as this technique allowed for rapid expansion of urban areas due to their organization (Blog Chapter 6). These quickly growing Roman cities would have been used as trading hubs and military cities that would have strengthened their grip on the Mediterranean. They also reflected the Greek way of polytheistic worship but decided to build their temples in commercial areas within cities instead of at the tops of mountains (p.136).
The placement of these temples would have been influential to the Roman economy as the temples would have brought in an influx of people into these areas of trade.
The architecture that the Romans developed were extremely influential to their growth into an empire. The architectural accomplishment that Is regarded to be one of the most influential was the Roman arch. The Roman arch could be applied into countless different forms through vaulting. These vaults allowed buildings to support their own weight without additional supports.
The Romans applied this to the construction of bridges that created an extensive road system throughout their area of influence that increased trade due to the ease of travel. The application of the arch also led to the construction of aqueducts (that were unfortunately lined with lead) that could carry water throughout urban centers.
The Romans also used the discipline of painting in order to stimulate the economy and create pro-empire propaganda. The commissioning of frescos in either temples, tombs, or the estates of the wealthy would have further stimulated the economy. The nobles and military would also paint the empire in a positive light through the creation of triumphal paintings which would display the legion’s victories during times of military campaign (https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI8523409/).
The Roman people rapidly expanded into a powerful empire due to their adoption of artistic attributes from earlier cultures, and further developing them.
April 14, 2020
FA 111 Art History
Weekly Response 3/5
The Roman Empire is one of the strongest empires to ever exist. This was developed with the help of the Roman’s architecture, their city planning, and was shown through their panting. The Romans became very strong in many different areas including their government, their art, and as a culture.
The Roman Empire began gaining strength when Augustus, the son of Caesar, took the throne. This is because when Augusts took the throne, he never claimed the title of “emperor” or “king”. This began the “Pax Romana” which literally translates to “Roman Peace”, and this lasted until 180 CE ("The Roman Empire (Article) | Khan Academy"). Within this state of peace, the Romans were able to create very magnificent works of art. One of the many things they were able to create was the “Peristyle Garden” at the House of Vettii in Pompeii (62-79 CE). 
The House of Vettii was one of the apartment style type houses that the Romans had. The house was built by two brothers A Vettius Conviva and A Vettius Restitutus, the two were freed slaves who had accumulated a great amount of wealth. Roman houses included things such as courtyards that were enclosed by columns, private areas for families, as dining rooms, bedrooms and kitchens. They also included an outdoor living room which had painted walls, fountains, and sculptures. Mosaics were often used as decoration in floors of Roman houses, but they also held a purpose. They allowed the house to have a solid foundation that was also waterproof. The Romans used paintings to cover their walls, and they typically used landscapes or cityscapes to create a larger feeling in a small room. The image above of House of Vettii comes into play here because it holds some of the best Roman paintings to survive, as well as gives an example of what an outdoor living room could look like. It's surprising how well preserved the architecture of the House of Vettii, given the fact that there was an earthquake in 62 CE, and the eruption of Vesuvius only 17 years later in 79 CE (Stokstad et al.).
Another great example of the Roman Empire’s architecture is the Colosseum. The Colosseum is a very large cylindrical shaped building where Romans would watch what they considered sports. These sports included gladiator battles and battles between a gladiator and a wild or trained animal, and all these battles were battles to the death. The Colosseum opened in 80 CE, and it is said that the opening performance lasted 100 days. It is also said that around 9,000 wild animals and 2,000 gladiators were killed for entertainment. It was crafted out of travertine, tufa block and concrete that was faced with stone (Stokstad et al.). The Colosseum is a great example of the Roman’s strength because it gave them a reason besides war to train and become tough. It made the Roman gladiators train to take on animals such as a wild lion, it made them want to be the one to conquer the wild animal, because that would most definitely be a sign of strength.
The Roman’s general infrastructure had a lot of impact on ours now. The Roman’s invented a lot of things that we still use today. They gave us things such as sewer systems and public toilets (Grabar). However, the cities were laid out very similarly to Egypt and Greece-in a grid pattern. One of the major differences between Rome and Greece was that the Romans built their temples within the cities so they could “be with the gods at all times” (Pepper). The Pantheon is a great example of the temples.
(https://blogs.uoregon.edu/rel399f14drreis/2014/09/02/welcome-to-greco-roman-religions/pantheon-rome/)
As shown in the image above, the Pantheon is in the middle of a section of Rome. Having the temples in the middle of the city could be very beneficial because the people would all see themselves as worthy of worshiping, and not like those who regularly worship are more important or held higher than those who don’t. It also allows for more worshiping because it’s not out of the way up on a hill, its “right around the corner”. Having the city laid out how the Romans did strengthened Rome because it brought everyone together as a unit and allowed for easier access to temples and other things, they needed to be unified.
Paintings were another way that Rome showed their strength. One of the biggest motifs in Roman art is portraiture, and this very evident within their paintings.
This portrait was done in the Mid. 1st century CE. It depicts a husband and wife. The wife is looking off into the distance, while the man holds a direct stare. The man is holding a scroll, while the woman is holding a stylus, both objects symbolize an educational achievement within Roman culture (Stokstad et al.). This signifies strength because strength is not strictly a physical thing. Mental strength comes from knowledge and the will to learn things. The Roman Empire was not only strong because they wielded physical strength, they were strong because they got educated, and they were smart.
Overall, the Roman Empire was strong because it was a unit. They were physically strong yes, but they were also mentally strong, which is something needed if a culture wanted to accomplish as much as the Roman’s did. They showed their strength through their architecture, their city layout, and through their art. The Roman’s showed great strength, and that lead them to accomplish everything they were able to. (920 words)
Works Cited
Grabar, Henry. "What 2,000-Year-Old Infrastructure Tells Us About Urban Planning". Nextcity.Org, 2016,
Pepper, Jen. "NOTES: Chapter 6 > The Ancient Roman World". Sp2020cazfa111.Blogspot. Com, 2020,
Stokstad, Marilyn et al. Art, A Brief History. Pearson Education Inc., 2016, pp. 128-158.
"The Roman Empire (Article) | Khan Academy". Khan Academy, https://www.khanacademy.org/
humanities/world-history/ancient-medieval/roman-a/a/roman-empire.